1 @node Project 2--User Programs
2 @chapter Project 2: User Programs
4 Now that you've worked with Pintos and are becoming familiar with its
5 infrastructure and thread package, it's time to start working on the
6 parts of the system that allow running user programs.
7 The base code already supports loading and
8 running user programs, but no I/O or interactivity
9 is possible. In this project, you will enable programs to interact with
10 the OS via system calls.
12 You will be working out of the @file{userprog} directory for this
13 assignment, but you will also be interacting with almost every
14 other part of Pintos. We will describe the
17 You can build project 2 on top of your project 1 submission or you can
18 start fresh. No code from project 1 is required for this
19 assignment. The ``alarm clock'' functionality may be useful in
20 projects 3 and 4, but it is not strictly required.
22 You might find it useful to go back and reread how to run the tests
26 * Project 2 Background::
27 * Project 2 Suggested Order of Implementation::
28 * Project 2 Requirements::
30 * 80x86 Calling Convention::
33 @node Project 2 Background
36 Up to now, all of the code you have run under Pintos has been part
37 of the operating system kernel. This means, for example, that all the
38 test code from the last assignment ran as part of the kernel, with
39 full access to privileged parts of the system. Once we start running
40 user programs on top of the operating system, this is no longer true.
41 This project deals with the consequences.
43 We allow more than one process to run at a time. Each process has one
44 thread (multithreaded processes are not supported). User programs are
45 written under the illusion that they have the entire machine. This
46 means that when you load and run multiple processes at a time, you must
47 manage memory, scheduling, and other state correctly to maintain this
50 In the previous project, we compiled our test code directly into your
51 kernel, so we had to require certain specific function interfaces within
52 the kernel. From now on, we will test your operating system by running
53 user programs. This gives you much greater freedom. You must make sure
54 that the user program interface meets the specifications described here,
55 but given that constraint you are free to restructure or rewrite kernel
56 code however you wish.
59 * Project 2 Source Files::
60 * Using the File System::
61 * How User Programs Work::
62 * Virtual Memory Layout::
63 * Accessing User Memory::
66 @node Project 2 Source Files
67 @subsection Source Files
69 The easiest way to get an overview of the programming you will be
70 doing is to simply go over each part you'll be working with. In
71 @file{userprog}, you'll find a small number of files, but here is
72 where the bulk of your work will be:
77 Loads ELF binaries and starts processes.
81 A simple manager for 80@var{x}86 hardware page tables.
82 Although you probably won't want to modify this code for this project,
83 you may want to call some of its functions.
84 @xref{Page Tables}, for more information.
88 Whenever a user process wants to access some kernel functionality, it
89 invokes a system call. This is a skeleton system call
90 handler. Currently, it just prints a message and terminates the user
91 process. In part 2 of this project you will add code to do everything
92 else needed by system calls.
96 When a user process performs a privileged or prohibited operation, it
97 traps into the kernel as an ``exception'' or ``fault.''@footnote{We
98 will treat these terms as synonyms. There is no standard
99 distinction between them, although Intel processor manuals make
100 a minor distinction between them on 80@var{x}86.} These files handle
101 exceptions. Currently all exceptions simply print a message and
102 terminate the process. Some, but not all, solutions to project 2
103 require modifying @func{page_fault} in this file.
107 The 80@var{x}86 is a segmented architecture. The Global Descriptor
108 Table (GDT) is a table that describes the segments in use. These
109 files set up the GDT. You should not need to modify these
110 files for any of the projects. You can read the code if
111 you're interested in how the GDT works.
115 The Task-State Segment (TSS) is used for 80@var{x}86 architectural
116 task switching. Pintos uses the TSS only for switching stacks when a
117 user process enters an interrupt handler, as does Linux. You
118 should not need to modify these files for any of the projects.
119 You can read the code if you're interested in how the TSS
123 @node Using the File System
124 @subsection Using the File System
126 You will need to interface to the file system code for this project,
128 user programs are loaded from the file system and many of the
129 system calls you must implement deal with the file system. However,
130 the focus of this project is not the file system, so we have
131 provided a simple but complete file system in the @file{filesys}
133 will want to look over the @file{filesys.h} and @file{file.h}
134 interfaces to understand how to use the file system, and especially
135 its many limitations.
137 There is no need to modify the file system code for this project, and so
138 we recommend that you do not. Working on the file system is likely to
139 distract you from this project's focus.
141 Proper use of the file system routines now
142 will make life much easier for project 4, when you improve the file
143 system implementation. Until then, you will have to tolerate the
144 following limitations:
148 No internal synchronization. Concurrent accesses will interfere with one
149 another. You should use synchronization to ensure that only one process at a
150 time is executing file system code.
153 File size is fixed at creation time. The root directory is
154 represented as a file, so the number of files that may be created is also
158 File data is allocated as a single extent, that is, data in a single
159 file must occupy a contiguous range of sectors on disk. External
160 fragmentation can therefore become a serious problem as a file system is
167 File names are limited to 14 characters.
170 A system crash mid-operation may corrupt the disk in a way
171 that cannot be repaired automatically. There is no file system repair
175 One important feature is included:
179 Unix-like semantics for @func{filesys_remove} are implemented.
180 That is, if a file is open when it is removed, its blocks
181 are not deallocated and it may still be accessed by any
182 threads that have it open, until the last one closes it. @xref{Removing
183 an Open File}, for more information.
186 You need to be able to create simulated disks. The
187 @command{pintos-mkdisk} program provides this functionality. From the
188 @file{userprog/build} directory, execute @code{pintos-mkdisk fs.dsk@tie{}2}.
189 This command creates a 2 MB simulated disk named @file{fs.dsk}. Then
190 format the disk by passing @option{-f -q} on the kernel's command
191 line: @code{pintos -f -q}. The @option{-f} option causes the disk to be
192 formatted, and @option{-q} causes Pintos to exit as soon as the format
195 You'll need a way to copy files in and out of the simulated file system.
196 The @code{pintos} @option{-p} (``put'') and @option{-g} (``get'')
197 options do this. To copy @file{@var{file}} into the
198 Pintos file system, use the command @file{pintos -p @var{file} -- -q}.
199 (The @samp{--} is needed because @option{-p} is for the @command{pintos}
200 script, not for the simulated kernel.) To copy it to the Pintos file
201 system under the name @file{@var{newname}}, add @option{-a
202 @var{newname}}: @file{pintos -p @var{file} -a @var{newname} -- -q}. The
203 commands for copying files out of a VM are similar, but substitute
204 @option{-g} for @option{-p}.
206 Incidentally, these commands work by passing special commands
207 @command{put} and @command{get} on the kernel's command line and copying
208 to and from a special simulated ``scratch'' disk. If you're very
209 curious, you can look at the @command{pintos} script as well as
210 @file{filesys/fsutil.c} to learn the implementation details.
212 Here's a summary of how to create and format a disk, copy the
213 @command{echo} program into the new disk, and then run @command{echo},
214 passing argument @code{x}. (Argument passing won't work until
215 you implemented it.) It assumes
216 that you've already built the
217 examples in @file{examples} and that the current directory is
218 @file{userprog/build}:
221 pintos-mkdisk fs.dsk 2
223 pintos -p ../../examples/echo -a echo -- -q
224 pintos -q run 'echo x'
227 The three final steps can actually be combined into a single command:
230 pintos-mkdisk fs.dsk 2
231 pintos -p ../../examples/echo -a echo -- -f -q run 'echo x'
234 If you don't want to keep the file system disk around for later use or
235 inspection, you can even combine all four steps into a single command.
236 The @code{--fs-disk=@var{n}} option creates a temporary disk
237 approximately @var{n} megabytes in size just for the duration of the
238 @command{pintos} run. The Pintos automatic test suite makes extensive
242 pintos --fs-disk=2 -p ../../examples/echo -a echo -- -f -q run 'echo x'
245 You can delete a file from the Pintos file system using the @code{rm
246 @var{file}} kernel action, e.g.@: @code{pintos -q rm @var{file}}. Also,
247 @command{ls} lists the files in the file system and @code{cat
248 @var{file}} prints a file's contents to the display.
250 @node How User Programs Work
251 @subsection How User Programs Work
253 Pintos can run normal C programs, as long as they fit into memory and use
254 only the system calls you implement. Notably, @func{malloc} cannot be
255 implemented because none of the system calls required for this project
256 allow for memory allocation. Pintos also can't run programs that use
257 floating point operations, since the kernel doesn't save and restore the
258 processor's floating-point unit when switching threads.
260 The @file{src/examples} directory contains a few sample user
261 programs. The @file{Makefile} in this directory
262 compiles the provided examples, and you can edit it
263 compile your own programs as well. Some of the example programs will
264 only work once projects 3 or 4 have been implemented.
266 Pintos can load @dfn{ELF} executables with the loader provided for you
267 in @file{userprog/process.c}. ELF is a file format used by Linux,
268 Solaris, and many other operating systems for object files,
269 shared libraries, and executables. You can actually use any compiler
270 and linker that output 80@var{x}86 ELF executables to produce programs
271 for Pintos. (We've provided compilers and linkers that should do just
274 You should realize immediately that, until you copy a
275 test program to the simulated disk, Pintos will be unable to do
276 useful work. You won't be able to do
277 interesting things until you copy a variety of programs to the disk.
278 You might want to create a clean reference disk and copy that
279 over whenever you trash your @file{fs.dsk} beyond a useful state,
280 which may happen occasionally while debugging.
282 @node Virtual Memory Layout
283 @subsection Virtual Memory Layout
285 Virtual memory in Pintos is divided into two regions: user virtual
286 memory and kernel virtual memory. User virtual memory ranges from
287 virtual address 0 up to @code{PHYS_BASE}, which is defined in
288 @file{threads/vaddr.h} and defaults to @t{0xc0000000} (3 GB). Kernel
289 virtual memory occupies the rest of the virtual address space, from
290 @code{PHYS_BASE} up to 4 GB.
292 User virtual memory is per-process.
293 When the kernel switches from one process to another, it
294 also switches user virtual address spaces by changing the processor's
295 page directory base register (see @func{pagedir_activate} in
296 @file{userprog/pagedir.c}). @struct{thread} contains a pointer to a
297 process's page table.
299 Kernel virtual memory is global. It is always mapped the same way,
300 regardless of what user process or kernel thread is running. In
301 Pintos, kernel virtual memory is mapped one-to-one to physical
302 memory, starting at @code{PHYS_BASE}. That is, virtual address
303 @code{PHYS_BASE} accesses physical
304 address 0, virtual address @code{PHYS_BASE} + @t{0x1234} access
305 physical address @t{0x1234}, and so on up to the size of the machine's
308 A user program can only access its own user virtual memory. An attempt to
309 access kernel virtual memory causes a page fault, handled by
310 @func{page_fault} in @file{userprog/exception.c}, and the process
311 will be terminated. Kernel threads can access both kernel virtual
312 memory and, if a user process is running, the user virtual memory of
313 the running process. However, even in the kernel, an attempt to
314 access memory at an unmapped user virtual address
315 will cause a page fault.
317 You must handle memory fragmentation gracefully, that is, a process that
318 needs @var{N} pages of user virtual memory must not require those pages
319 to be contiguous in physical memory (or, equivalently, in kernel virtual
323 * Typical Memory Layout::
326 @node Typical Memory Layout
327 @subsubsection Typical Memory Layout
329 Conceptually, each process is
330 free to lay out its own user virtual memory however it
331 chooses. In practice, user virtual memory is laid out like this:
338 PHYS_BASE +----------------------------------+
352 +----------------------------------+
353 | uninitialized data segment (BSS) |
354 +----------------------------------+
355 | initialized data segment |
356 +----------------------------------+
358 0x08048000 +----------------------------------+
364 0 +----------------------------------+
371 In this project, the user stack is fixed in size, but in project 3 it
372 will be allowed to grow. Traditionally, the size of the uninitialized
373 data segment can be adjusted with a system call, but you will not have
376 The code segment in Pintos starts at user virtual address
377 @t{0x08084000}, approximately 128 MB from the bottom of the address
378 space. This value is specified in @bibref{SysV-i386} and has no deep
381 The linker sets the layout of a user program in memory, as directed by a
382 ``linker script'' that tells it the names and locations of the various
383 program segments. You can learn more about linker scripts by reading
384 the ``Scripts'' chapter in the linker manual, accessible via @samp{info
387 To view the layout of a particular executable, run @command{objdump}
388 (80@var{x}86) or @command{i386-elf-objdump} (SPARC) with the @option{-p}
391 @node Accessing User Memory
392 @subsection Accessing User Memory
395 call, the kernel must often access memory through pointers provided by a user
396 program. The kernel must be very careful about doing so, because
397 the user can pass a null pointer, a pointer to
398 unmapped virtual memory, or a pointer to kernel virtual address space
399 (above @code{PHYS_BASE}). All of these types of invalid pointers must
400 be rejected without harm to the kernel or other running processes, by
401 terminating the offending process and freeing its resources.
403 There are at least two reasonable ways to do this correctly. The
404 first method is to verify
405 the validity of a user-provided pointer, then dereference it. If you
406 choose this route, you'll want to look at the functions in
407 @file{userprog/pagedir.c} and in @file{threads/vaddr.h}. This is the
408 simplest way to handle user memory access.
410 The second method is to check only that a user
411 pointer points below @code{PHYS_BASE}, then dereference it.
412 An invalid user pointer will cause a ``page fault'' that you can
413 handle by modifying the code for @func{page_fault} in
414 @file{userprog/exception.cc}. This technique is normally faster
415 because it takes advantage of the processor's MMU, so it tends to be
416 used in real kernels (including Linux).
418 In either case, you need to make sure not to ``leak'' resources. For
419 example, suppose that your system call has acquired a lock or
420 allocated memory with @func{malloc}. If you encounter an invalid user pointer
421 afterward, you must still be sure to release the lock or free the page
422 of memory. If you choose to verify user pointers before dereferencing
423 them, this should be straightforward. It's more difficult to handle
424 if an invalid pointer causes a page fault,
425 because there's no way to return an error code from a memory access.
426 Therefore, for those who want to try the latter technique, we'll
427 provide a little bit of helpful code:
430 /* Reads a byte at user virtual address UADDR.
431 UADDR must be below PHYS_BASE.
432 Returns the byte value if successful, -1 if a segfault
435 get_user (const uint8_t *uaddr)
438 asm ("movl $1f, %0; movzbl %1, %0; 1:"
439 : "=&a" (result) : "m" (*uaddr));
443 /* Writes BYTE to user address UDST.
444 UDST must be below PHYS_BASE.
445 Returns true if successful, false if a segfault occurred. */
447 put_user (uint8_t *udst, uint8_t byte)
450 asm ("movl $1f, %0; movb %b2, %1; 1:"
451 : "=&a" (error_code), "=m" (*udst) : "r" (byte));
452 return error_code != -1;
456 Each of these functions assumes that the user address has already been
457 verified to be below @code{PHYS_BASE}. They also assume that you've
458 modified @func{page_fault} so that a page fault in the kernel merely
459 sets @code{eax} to @t{0xffffffff} and copies its former value
462 @node Project 2 Suggested Order of Implementation
463 @section Suggested Order of Implementation
465 We suggest first implementing the following, which can happen in
470 Argument passing (@pxref{Argument Passing}). Every user program will
471 page fault immediately until argument passing is implemented.
473 For now, you may simply wish to change
479 *esp = PHYS_BASE - 12;
481 in @func{setup_stack}. That will work for any test program that doesn't
482 examine its arguments, although its name will be printed as
485 Until you implement argument passing, you should only run programs
486 without passing command-line arguments. Attempting to pass arguments to
487 a program will include those arguments in the name of the program, which
491 User memory access (@pxref{Accessing User Memory}). All system calls
492 need to read user memory. Few system calls need to write to user
496 System call infrastructure (@pxref{System Calls}). Implement enough
497 code to read the system call number from the user stack and dispatch to
498 a handler based on it.
501 The @code{exit} system call. Every user program that finishes in the
502 normal way calls @code{exit}. Even a program that returns from
503 @func{main} calls @code{exit} indirectly (see @func{_start} in
504 @file{lib/user/entry.c}).
507 The @code{write} system call for writing to fd 1, the system console.
508 All of our test programs write to the console (the user process version
509 of @func{printf} is implemented this way), so they will all malfunction
510 until @code{write} is available.
513 For now, change @func{process_wait} to an infinite loop (one that waits
514 forever). The provided implementation returns immediately, so Pintos
515 will power off before any processes actually get to run. You will
516 eventually need to provide a correct implementation.
519 After the above are implemented, user processes should work minimally.
520 At the very least, they can write to the console and exit correctly.
521 You can then refine your implementation so that some of the tests start
524 @node Project 2 Requirements
525 @section Requirements
528 * Project 2 Design Document::
529 * Process Termination Messages::
532 * Denying Writes to Executables::
535 @node Project 2 Design Document
536 @subsection Design Document
538 Before you turn in your project, you must copy @uref{userprog.tmpl, ,
539 the project 2 design document template} into your source tree under the
540 name @file{pintos/src/userprog/DESIGNDOC} and fill it in. We recommend
541 that you read the design document template before you start working on
542 the project. @xref{Project Documentation}, for a sample design document
543 that goes along with a fictitious project.
545 @node Process Termination Messages
546 @subsection Process Termination Messages
548 Whenever a user process terminates, because it called @code{exit}
549 or for any other reason, print the process's name
550 and exit code, formatted as if printed by @code{printf ("%s:
551 exit(%d)\n", @dots{});}. The name printed should be the full name
552 passed to @func{process_execute}, omitting command-line arguments.
553 Do not print these messages when a kernel thread that is not a user
554 process terminates, or
555 when the @code{halt} system call is invoked. The message is optional
556 when a process fails to load.
558 Aside from this, don't print any other
559 messages that Pintos as provided doesn't already print. You may find
560 extra messages useful during debugging, but they will confuse the
561 grading scripts and thus lower your score.
563 @node Argument Passing
564 @subsection Argument Passing
566 Currently, @func{process_execute} does not support passing arguments to
567 new processes. Implement this functionality, by extending
568 @func{process_execute} so that instead of simply taking a program file
569 name as its argument, it divides it into words at spaces. The first
570 word is the program name, the second word is the first argument, and so
571 on. That is, @code{process_execute("grep foo bar")} should run
572 @command{grep} passing two arguments @code{foo} and @code{bar}.
574 Within a command line, multiple spaces are equivalent to a single space,
575 so that @code{process_execute("grep foo bar")} is equivalent to our
576 original example. You can impose a reasonable limit on the length of
577 the command line arguments. For example, you could limit the arguments
578 to those that will fit in a single page (4 kB). (There is an unrelated
579 limit of 128 bytes on command-line arguments that the @command{pintos}
580 utility can pass to the kernel.)
582 You can parse argument strings any way you like. If you're lost,
583 look at @func{strtok_r}, prototyped in @file{lib/string.h} and
584 implemented with thorough comments in @file{lib/string.c}. You can
585 find more about it by looking at the man page (run @code{man strtok_r}
588 @xref{Program Startup Details}, for information on exactly how you
589 need to set up the stack.
592 @subsection System Calls
594 Implement the system call handler in @file{userprog/syscall.c}. The
595 skeleton implementation we provide ``handles'' system calls by
596 terminating the process. It will need to retrieve the system call
597 number, then any system call arguments, and carry out appropriate actions.
599 Implement the following system calls. The prototypes listed are those
600 seen by a user program that includes @file{lib/user/syscall.h}. (This
601 header, and all others in @file{lib/user}, are for use by user
602 programs only.) System call numbers for each system call are defined in
603 @file{lib/syscall-nr.h}:
605 @deftypefn {System Call} void halt (void)
606 Terminates Pintos by calling @func{power_off} (declared in
607 @file{threads/init.h}). This should be seldom used, because you lose
608 some information about possible deadlock situations, etc.
611 @deftypefn {System Call} void exit (int @var{status})
612 Terminates the current user program, returning @var{status} to the
613 kernel. If the process's parent @code{wait}s for it (see below), this
615 that will be returned. Conventionally, a @var{status} of 0 indicates
616 success and nonzero values indicate errors.
619 @deftypefn {System Call} pid_t exec (const char *@var{cmd_line})
620 Runs the executable whose name is given in @var{cmd_line}, passing any
621 given arguments, and returns the new process's program id (pid). Must
622 return pid -1, which otherwise should not be a valid pid, if
623 the program cannot load or run for any reason.
626 @deftypefn {System Call} int wait (pid_t @var{pid})
627 Waits for process @var{pid} to die and returns the status it passed to
628 @code{exit}. Returns -1 if @var{pid}
629 was terminated by the kernel (e.g.@: killed due to an exception). If
630 @var{pid} is does not refer to a child of the
631 calling thread, or if @code{wait} has already been successfully
632 called for the given @var{pid}, returns -1 immediately, without
635 You must ensure that Pintos does not terminate until the initial
636 process exits. The supplied Pintos code tries to do this by calling
637 @func{process_wait} (in @file{userprog/process.c}) from @func{main}
638 (in @file{threads/init.c}). We suggest that you implement
639 @func{process_wait} according to the comment at the top of the
640 function and then implement the @code{wait} system call in terms of
643 All of a process's resources, including its @struct{thread}, must be
644 freed whether its parent ever waits for it or not, and regardless of
645 whether the child exits before or after its parent.
647 Children are not inherited: if @var{A} has child @var{B} and
648 @var{B} has child @var{C}, then @code{wait(C)} always returns immediately
649 when called from @var{A}, even if @var{B} is dead.
651 Consider all the ways a wait can occur: nested waits (@var{A} waits
652 for @var{B}, then @var{B} waits for @var{C}), multiple waits (@var{A}
653 waits for @var{B}, then @var{A} waits for @var{C}), and so on.
655 Implementing this system call requires considerably more work than any
659 @deftypefn {System Call} bool create (const char *@var{file}, unsigned @var{initial_size})
660 Creates a new file called @var{file} initially @var{initial_size} bytes
661 in size. Returns true if successful, false otherwise.
664 @deftypefn {System Call} bool remove (const char *@var{file})
665 Deletes the file called @var{file}. Returns true if successful, false
669 @deftypefn {System Call} int open (const char *@var{file})
670 Opens the file called @var{file}. Returns a nonnegative integer handle
671 called a ``file descriptor'' (fd), or -1 if the file could not be
674 File descriptors numbered 0 and 1 are reserved for the console: fd 0
675 (@code{STDIN_FILENO}) is standard input, fd 1 (@code{STDOUT_FILENO}) is
676 standard output. The @code{open} system call will never return either
677 of these file descriptors, which are valid as system call arguments only
678 as explicitly described below.
680 Each process has an independent set of file descriptors. File
681 descriptors are not inherited by child processes.
684 @deftypefn {System Call} int filesize (int @var{fd})
685 Returns the size, in bytes, of the file open as @var{fd}.
688 @deftypefn {System Call} int read (int @var{fd}, void *@var{buffer}, unsigned @var{size})
689 Reads @var{size} bytes from the file open as @var{fd} into
690 @var{buffer}. Returns the number of bytes actually read (0 at end of
691 file), or -1 if the file could not be read (due to a condition other
692 than end of file). Fd 0 reads from the keyboard using
693 @func{kbd_getc}. (Keyboard input will not work if you pass the
694 @option{-v} option to @command{pintos}.)
697 @deftypefn {System Call} int write (int @var{fd}, const void *@var{buffer}, unsigned @var{size})
698 Writes @var{size} bytes from @var{buffer} to the open file @var{fd}.
699 Returns the number of bytes actually written, or -1 if the file could
702 Writing past end-of-file would normally extend the file, but file growth
703 is not implemented by the basic file system. The expected behavior is
704 to write as many bytes as possible up to end-of-file and return the
705 actual number written, or -1 if no bytes could be written at all.
707 Fd 1 writes to the console. Your code to write to the console should
708 write all of @var{buffer} in one call to @func{putbuf}, at least as
709 long as @var{size} is not bigger than a few hundred bytes. (It is
710 reasonable to break up larger buffers.) Otherwise,
711 lines of text output by different processes may end up interleaved on
712 the console, confusing both human readers and our grading scripts.
715 @deftypefn {System Call} void seek (int @var{fd}, unsigned @var{position})
716 Changes the next byte to be read or written in open file @var{fd} to
717 @var{position}, expressed in bytes from the beginning of the file.
718 (Thus, a @var{position} of 0 is the file's start.)
720 A seek past the current end of a file is not an error. A later read
721 obtains 0 bytes, indicating end of file. A later write extends the
722 file, filling any unwritten gap with zeros. (However, in Pintos files
723 have a fixed length until project 4 is complete, so writes past end of
724 file will return an error.) These semantics are implemented in the
725 file system and do not require any special effort in system call
729 @deftypefn {System Call} unsigned tell (int @var{fd})
730 Returns the position of the next byte to be read or written in open
731 file @var{fd}, expressed in bytes from the beginning of the file.
734 @deftypefn {System Call} void close (int @var{fd})
735 Closes file descriptor @var{fd}.
736 Exiting or terminating a process implicitly closes all its open file
737 descriptors, as if by calling this function for each one.
740 The file defines other syscalls. Ignore them for now. You will
741 implement some of them in project 3 and the rest in project 4, so be
742 sure to design your system with extensibility in mind.
744 To implement syscalls, you need to provide ways to read and write data
745 in user virtual address space.
746 You need this ability before you can
747 even obtain the system call number, because the system call number is
748 on the user's stack in the user's virtual address space.
749 This can be a bit tricky: what if the user provides an invalid
750 pointer, a pointer into kernel memory, or a block
751 partially in one of those regions? You should handle these cases by
752 terminating the user process. We recommend
753 writing and testing this code before implementing any other system
754 call functionality. @xref{Accessing User Memory}, for more information.
756 You must synchronize system calls so that
757 any number of user processes can make them at once. In particular, it
758 is not safe to call into the file system code provided in the
759 @file{filesys} directory from multiple threads at once. Your system
760 call implementation must treat the file system code as a critical
761 section. Don't forget
762 that @func{process_execute} also accesses files. For now, we
763 recommend against modifying code in the @file{filesys} directory.
765 We have provided you a user-level function for each system call in
766 @file{lib/user/syscall.c}. These provide a way for user processes to
767 invoke each system call from a C program. Each uses a little inline
768 assembly code to invoke the system call and (if appropriate) returns the
769 system call's return value.
771 When you're done with this part, and forevermore, Pintos should be
772 bulletproof. Nothing that a user program can do should ever cause the
773 OS to crash, panic, fail an assertion, or otherwise malfunction. It is
774 important to emphasize this point: our tests will try to break your
775 system calls in many, many ways. You need to think of all the corner
776 cases and handle them. The sole way a user program should be able to
777 cause the OS to halt is by invoking the @code{halt} system call.
779 If a system call is passed an invalid argument, acceptable options
780 include returning an error value (for those calls that return a
781 value), returning an undefined value, or terminating the process.
783 @xref{System Call Details}, for details on how system calls work.
785 @node Denying Writes to Executables
786 @subsection Denying Writes to Executables
788 Add code to deny writes to files in use as executables. Many OSes do
789 this because of the unpredictable results if a process tried to run code
790 that was in the midst of being changed on disk. This is especially
791 important once virtual memory is implemented in project 3, but it can't
794 You can use @func{file_deny_write} to prevent writes to an open file.
795 Calling @func{file_allow_write} on the file will re-enable them (unless
796 the file is denied writes by another opener). Closing a file will also
797 re-enable writes. Thus, to deny writes to a process's executable, you
798 must keep it open as long as the process is still running.
804 @item How much code will I need to write?
806 Here's a summary of our reference solution, produced by the
807 @command{diffstat} program. The final row gives total lines inserted
808 and deleted; a changed line counts as both an insertion and a deletion.
810 The reference solution represents just one possible solution. Many
811 other solutions are also possible and many of those differ greatly from
812 the reference solution. Some excellent solutions may not modify all the
813 files modified by the reference solution, and some may modify files not
814 modified by the reference solution.
817 threads/thread.c | 13
818 threads/thread.h | 26 +
819 userprog/exception.c | 8
820 userprog/process.c | 247 ++++++++++++++--
821 userprog/syscall.c | 468 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++-
822 userprog/syscall.h | 1
823 6 files changed, 725 insertions(+), 38 deletions(-)
826 @item The kernel always panics when I run @code{pintos -p @var{file} -- -q}.
828 Did you format the disk (with @samp{pintos -f})?
830 Is your file name too long? The file system limits file names to 14
831 characters. A command like @samp{pintos -p ../../examples/echo -- -q}
832 will exceed the limit. Use @samp{pintos -p ../../examples/echo -a echo
833 -- -q} to put the file under the name @file{echo} instead.
835 Is the file system full?
837 Does the file system already contain 16 files? The base Pintos file
838 system has a 16-file limit.
840 The file system may be so fragmented that there's not enough contiguous
843 @item When I run @code{pintos -p ../file --}, @file{file} isn't copied.
845 Files are written under the name you refer to them, by default, so in
846 this case the file copied in would be named @file{../file}. You
847 probably want to run @code{pintos -p ../file -a file --} instead.
849 @item All my user programs die with page faults.
851 This will happen if you haven't implemented argument passing
852 (or haven't done so correctly). The basic C library for user programs tries
853 to read @var{argc} and @var{argv} off the stack. If the stack
854 isn't properly set up, this causes a page fault.
856 @item All my user programs die with @code{system call!}
858 You'll have to implement system calls before you see anything else.
859 Every reasonable program tries to make at least one system call
860 (@func{exit}) and most programs make more than that. Notably,
861 @func{printf} invokes the @code{write} system call. The default system
862 call handler just prints @samp{system call!} and terminates the program.
863 Until then, you can use @func{hex_dump} to convince yourself that
864 argument passing is implemented correctly (@pxref{Program Startup Details}).
866 @item How can I can disassemble user programs?
868 The @command{objdump} (80@var{x}86) or @command{i386-elf-objdump}
869 (SPARC) utility can disassemble entire user
870 programs or object files. Invoke it as @code{objdump -d
871 @var{file}}. You can use GDB's
872 @code{disassemble} command to disassemble individual functions
875 @item Why do many C include files not work in Pintos programs?
876 @itemx Can I use lib@var{foo} in my Pintos programs?
878 The C library we provide is very limited. It does not include many of
879 the features that are expected of a real operating system's C library.
880 The C library must be built specifically for the operating system (and
881 architecture), since it must make system calls for I/O and memory
882 allocation. (Not all functions do, of course, but usually the library
883 is compiled as a unit.)
885 The chances are good that the library you want uses parts of the C library
886 that Pintos doesn't implement. It will probably take at least some
887 porting effort to make it work under Pintos. Notably, the Pintos
888 user program C library does not have a @func{malloc} implementation.
890 @item How do I compile new user programs?
892 Modify @file{src/examples/Makefile}, then run @command{make}.
894 @item Can I run user programs under a debugger?
896 Yes, with some limitations. @xref{Debugging User Programs}.
898 @item What's the difference between @code{tid_t} and @code{pid_t}?
900 A @code{tid_t} identifies a kernel thread, which may have a user
901 process running in it (if created with @func{process_execute}) or not
902 (if created with @func{thread_create}). It is a data type used only
905 A @code{pid_t} identifies a user process. It is used by user
906 processes and the kernel in the @code{exec} and @code{wait} system
909 You can choose whatever suitable types you like for @code{tid_t} and
910 @code{pid_t}. By default, they're both @code{int}. You can make them
911 a one-to-one mapping, so that the same values in both identify the
912 same process, or you can use a more complex mapping. It's up to you.
914 @item Keyboard input doesn't work.
916 You are probably passing @option{-v} to @command{pintos}, but
917 serial input isn't implemented. Don't use @option{-v} if you
918 want to use the shell or otherwise need keyboard input.
922 * Argument Passing FAQ::
926 @node Argument Passing FAQ
927 @subsection Argument Passing FAQ
930 @item Isn't the top of stack in kernel virtual memory?
932 The top of stack is at @code{PHYS_BASE}, typically @t{0xc0000000}, which
933 is also where kernel virtual memory starts.
934 But before the processor pushes data on the stack, it decrements the stack
935 pointer. Thus, the first (4-byte) value pushed on the stack
936 will be at address @t{0xbffffffc}.
938 @item Is @code{PHYS_BASE} fixed?
940 No. You should be able to support @code{PHYS_BASE} values that are
941 any multiple of @t{0x10000000} from @t{0x80000000} to @t{0xf0000000},
942 simply via recompilation.
945 @node System Calls FAQ
946 @subsection System Calls FAQ
949 @item Can I just cast a @code{struct file *} to get a file descriptor?
950 @itemx Can I just cast a @code{struct thread *} to a @code{pid_t}?
952 You will have to make these design decisions yourself.
953 Most operating systems do distinguish between file
954 descriptors (or pids) and the addresses of their kernel data
955 structures. You might want to give some thought as to why they do so
956 before committing yourself.
958 @item Can I set a maximum number of open files per process?
960 It is better not to set an arbitrary limit. You may impose a limit of
961 128 open files per process, if necessary.
963 @item What happens when an open file is removed?
964 @anchor{Removing an Open File}
966 You should implement the standard Unix semantics for files. That is, when
967 a file is removed any process which has a file descriptor for that file
968 may continue to use that descriptor. This means that
969 they can read and write from the file. The file will not have a name,
970 and no other processes will be able to open it, but it will continue
971 to exist until all file descriptors referring to the file are closed
972 or the machine shuts down.
974 @item How can I run user programs that need more than 4 kB stack space?
976 You may modify the stack setup code to allocate more than one page of
977 stack space for each process. In the next project, you will implement a
981 @node 80x86 Calling Convention
982 @section 80@var{x}86 Calling Convention
984 This section summarizes important points of the convention used for
985 normal function calls on 32-bit 80@var{x}86 implementations of Unix.
986 Some details are omitted for brevity. If you do want all the details,
987 refer to @bibref{SysV-i386}.
989 The calling convention works like this:
993 The caller pushes each of the function's arguments on the stack one by
994 one, normally using the @code{PUSH} assembly language instruction.
995 Arguments are pushed in right-to-left order.
997 The stack grows downward: each push decrements the stack pointer, then
998 stores into the location it now points to, like the C expression
999 @samp{*--sp = @var{value}}.
1002 The caller pushes the address of its next instruction (the @dfn{return
1003 address}) on the stack and jumps to the first instruction of the callee.
1004 A single 80@var{x}86 instruction, @code{CALL}, does both.
1007 The callee executes. When it takes control, the stack pointer points to
1008 the return address, the first argument is just above it, the second
1009 argument is just above the first argument, and so on.
1012 If the callee has a return value, it stores it into register @code{EAX}.
1015 The callee returns by popping the return address from the stack and
1016 jumping to the location it specifies, using the 80@var{x}86 @code{RET}
1020 The caller pops the arguments off the stack.
1023 Consider a function @func{f} that takes three @code{int} arguments.
1024 This diagram shows a sample stack frame as seen by the callee at the
1025 beginning of step 3 above, supposing that @func{f} is invoked as
1026 @code{f(1, 2, 3)}. The initial stack address is arbitrary:
1036 stack pointer --> 0xbffffe70 | return address |
1044 * Program Startup Details::
1045 * System Call Details::
1048 @node Program Startup Details
1049 @subsection Program Startup Details
1051 The Pintos C library for user programs designates @func{_start}, in
1052 @file{lib/user/entry.c}, as the entry point for user programs. This
1053 function is a wrapper around @func{main} that calls @func{exit} if
1054 @func{main} returns:
1058 _start (int argc, char *argv[])
1060 exit (main (argc, argv));
1064 The kernel must put the arguments for the initial function on the stack
1065 before it allows the user program to begin executing. The arguments are
1066 passed in the same way as the normal calling convention (@pxref{80x86
1067 Calling Convention}).
1069 Consider how to handle arguments for the following example command:
1070 @samp{/bin/ls -l foo bar}.
1071 First, break the command into words: @samp{/bin/ls},
1072 @samp{-l}, @samp{foo}, @samp{bar}. Place the words at the top of the
1073 stack. Order doesn't matter, because they will be referenced through
1076 Then, push the address of each string plus a null pointer sentinel, on
1077 the stack, in right-to-left order. These are the elements of
1078 @code{argv}. The order ensure that @code{argv[0]} is at the lowest
1079 virtual address. Word-aligned accesses are faster than unaligned
1080 accesses, so for best performance round the stack pointer down to a
1081 multiple of 4 before the first push.
1083 Then, push @code{argv} (the address of @code{argv[0]}) and @code{argc},
1084 in that order. Finally, push a fake ``return address'': although the
1085 entry function will never return, its stack frame must have the same
1086 structure as any other.
1088 The table below show the state of the stack and the relevant registers
1089 right before the beginning of the user program, assuming
1090 @code{PHYS_BASE} is @t{0xc0000000}:
1095 @multitable {@t{0xbfffffff}} {return address} {@t{/bin/ls\0}} {@code{void (*) ()}}
1096 @item Address @tab Name @tab Data @tab Type
1097 @item @t{0xbffffffc} @tab @code{argv[3][@dots{}]} @tab @samp{bar\0} @tab @code{char[4]}
1098 @item @t{0xbffffff8} @tab @code{argv[2][@dots{}]} @tab @samp{foo\0} @tab @code{char[4]}
1099 @item @t{0xbffffff5} @tab @code{argv[1][@dots{}]} @tab @samp{-l\0} @tab @code{char[3]}
1100 @item @t{0xbfffffed} @tab @code{argv[0][@dots{}]} @tab @samp{/bin/ls\0} @tab @code{char[8]}
1101 @item @t{0xbfffffec} @tab word-align @tab 0 @tab @code{uint8_t}
1102 @item @t{0xbfffffe8} @tab @code{argv[4]} @tab @t{0} @tab @code{char *}
1103 @item @t{0xbfffffe4} @tab @code{argv[3]} @tab @t{0xbffffffc} @tab @code{char *}
1104 @item @t{0xbfffffe0} @tab @code{argv[2]} @tab @t{0xbffffff8} @tab @code{char *}
1105 @item @t{0xbfffffdc} @tab @code{argv[1]} @tab @t{0xbffffff5} @tab @code{char *}
1106 @item @t{0xbfffffd8} @tab @code{argv[0]} @tab @t{0xbfffffed} @tab @code{char *}
1107 @item @t{0xbfffffd4} @tab @code{argv} @tab @t{0xbfffffd8} @tab @code{char **}
1108 @item @t{0xbfffffd0} @tab @code{argc} @tab 4 @tab @code{int}
1109 @item @t{0xbfffffcc} @tab return address @tab 0 @tab @code{void (*) ()}
1115 In this example, the stack pointer would be initialized to
1118 As shown above, your code should start the stack at the very top of
1119 the user virtual address space, in the page just below virtual address
1120 @code{PHYS_BASE} (defined in @file{threads/vaddr.h}).
1122 You may find the non-standard @func{hex_dump} function, declared in
1123 @file{<stdio.h>}, useful for debugging your argument passing code.
1124 Here's what it would show in the above example:
1127 bfffffc0 00 00 00 00 | ....|
1128 bfffffd0 04 00 00 00 d8 ff ff bf-ed ff ff bf f5 ff ff bf |................|
1129 bfffffe0 f8 ff ff bf fc ff ff bf-00 00 00 00 00 2f 62 69 |............./bi|
1130 bffffff0 6e 2f 6c 73 00 2d 6c 00-66 6f 6f 00 62 61 72 00 |n/ls.-l.foo.bar.|
1133 @node System Call Details
1134 @subsection System Call Details
1136 The first project already dealt with one way that the operating system
1137 can regain control from a user program: interrupts from timers and I/O
1138 devices. These are ``external'' interrupts, because they are caused
1139 by entities outside the CPU (@pxref{External Interrupt Handling}).
1141 The operating system also deals with software exceptions, which are
1142 events that occur in program code (@pxref{Internal Interrupt
1143 Handling}). These can be errors such as a page fault or division by
1144 zero. Exceptions are also the means by which a user program
1145 can request services (``system calls'') from the operating system.
1147 In the 80@var{x}86 architecture, the @samp{int} instruction is the
1148 most commonly used means for invoking system calls. This instruction
1149 is handled in the same way as other software exceptions. In Pintos,
1150 user programs invoke @samp{int $0x30} to make a system call. The
1151 system call number and any additional arguments are expected to be
1152 pushed on the stack in the normal fashion before invoking the
1153 interrupt (@pxref{80x86 Calling Convention}).
1155 Thus, when the system call handler @func{syscall_handler} gets control,
1156 the system call number is in the 32-bit word at the caller's stack
1157 pointer, the first argument is in the 32-bit word at the next higher
1158 address, and so on. The caller's stack pointer is accessible to
1159 @func{syscall_handler} as the @samp{esp} member of the
1160 @struct{intr_frame} passed to it. (@struct{intr_frame} is on the kernel
1163 The 80@var{x}86 convention for function return values is to place them
1164 in the @code{EAX} register. System calls that return a value can do
1165 so by modifying the @samp{eax} member of @struct{intr_frame}.
1167 You should try to avoid writing large amounts of repetitive code for
1168 implementing system calls. Each system call argument, whether an
1169 integer or a pointer, takes up 4 bytes on the stack. You should be able
1170 to take advantage of this to avoid writing much near-identical code for
1171 retrieving each system call's arguments from the stack.